- Area & Production
- Cultivation
- Varieties
- Training & Pruning
Table of Contents
Suggested Readings
Introduction to Pineapple
Pineapple (Ananas comosus (L) Merr.) is a tropical fruit belonging to the Bromeliaceae family, renowned for its exquisite flavor and taste. It is considered one of the world’s most popular and delightful fruits, often referred to as the “heavenly fruit.” This comprehensive guide aims to provide an in-depth understanding of pineapple cultivation, covering various aspects from its origin and distribution to cultivation practices, pest and disease management, and post-harvest handling.
Origin and Distribution
Pineapple is believed to have originated in southern Brazil and Paraguay, where wild relatives still thrive in abundance. The Tupi-Guarani Indians domesticated the plant and introduced it to South and Central America, Mexico, and the West Indies long before the arrival of Europeans. Explorers and settlers, captivated by the fruit’s allure, played a significant role in its widespread distribution across different regions.
By the 15th century, Christopher Columbus encountered pineapples during his voyages to the Americas, sparking interest among Europeans. The Spaniards later introduced the fruit to the Philippines and Hawaii in the early 16th century, while the Portuguese traders are credited with bringing it to India from the Molucca Islands in 1548. By the mid-17th century, pineapples had reached China, South Africa, and even Europe, where successful cultivation began in 1712.
Today, major pineapple-producing regions include Hawaii, Brazil, Malaysia, Taiwan, Australia, the Philippines, South Africa, Singapore, Puerto Rico, India, Java, Thailand, and Sumatra. In several countries, pineapple has become the leading commercial fruit crop, highlighting its global popularity and economic significance.
Composition and Uses
Pineapple is a highly nutritious fruit, rich in vitamins A and C, as well as essential minerals like phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, potassium, and iron . It contains a proteolytic enzyme called bromelain, which aids in digestion and exhibits anti-inflammatory properties, making it valuable in modern therapy for reducing swelling and promoting healing after surgery or physical injuries.
The fruit’s fiber content helps promote bowel movement and alleviate indigestion, making it a popular addition to daily diets. Pineapple juice has a refreshing and cooling effect, particularly during hot weather, and is believed to possess medicinal properties, including the potential to inhibit cancer cell multiplication and control platelet count in the blood.
Botany
The Bromeliaceae family encompasses a large number of epiphytic plants, with pineapple being a terrestrial member. The genus Ananas is diploid (2n = 50), while Pseudoananas is tetraploid (4n = 100). Within the Ananas genus, there are five important species: A. bracteatus, A. fruitzmvelleri, A. comosus (the cultivated species), A. erectifolius, and A. ananassoides [6].
Pineapple plants are terrestrial, monocotyledonous, perennial herbs with a height ranging from 0.75 to 1.5 meters and a spread of 90 to 120 centimeters. They have a short, stout stem with a rosette of waxy, strap-like leaves that can reach up to 4.8 meters in length and may or may not have spines along the margins [7]. The plant produces a single fruit on a peduncle protruding from the center of the leaf rosette.
Pineapple follows a specific photosynthetic pathway known as the crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM), where carbon dioxide is reduced to organic acids and accumulated in the leaves at night, and then converted to sugars during the day [8]. This mechanism allows the plant to conserve water by keeping its stomata closed during the day, reducing transpirational water loss.
Varaities
Pineapple varieties are classified into five main groups based on their characteristics: Cayenne, Spanish, Queen, Pernambuco, and Mordilona [9]. Some notable varieties within these groups include.
Cayenne group
Smooth Cayenne, Hilo, Kew, Charlotte Rothschild, Perolera, Monte Lirio.
Spanish group
Red Spanish, Singapore Spanish, Masmerah, Cabezona, Valera, Valera Amarilla.
Queen group
Queen, Mauritius, Ripley Queen, Mac Gregor, Natal Queen.
Pernambuco group
Abacaxi, Sugar Loaf.
Mordilona group
Perolera, Milagrena, Mariquita, Manzana, Tachirense, Maipure, Randon, Monte Lirio.
Crop Improvement
Crop improvement in pineapple aims to incorporate desirable fruit characteristics such as high mean weight, uniform ripening, high sugar and ascorbic acid content, pleasant flavor, and cylindrical shape with attractive color, shallow eyes, less fiber, firm and sweet flesh, and a small to medium crown [10]. Additionally, plant vigor, disease resistance, and reduced leaf spines are also targeted.
Clonal selection is a common practice in pineapple improvement, with examples like ‘Queensland Cayenne’ (a dual-purpose cultivar selected from Smooth Cayenne), ‘Cumanesa’ (a selection from Red Spanish), and ‘Alexandra’ (a selection from Ripley Queen).
Hybridization is another approach to improvement, although it is time-consuming due to the plant’s self-sterility and the need for careful seed germination and evaluation. Notable hybrids include ‘P.R. 1-67’ and ‘P.R. 1-56’ from the University of Puerto Rico, ‘Typhone No.1’ and ‘Typhone No.3’ from Taiwan, ‘Josapine’ from the Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI), and ‘Amritha’ from the Kerala Agricultural University in India .
Biotechnological interventions, such as biolistic techniques and somaclonal variation, have also been explored to produce transgenic Smooth Cayenne plants and evaluate genetic diversity among accessions .
Climate Requirements
Temperature
Optimum temperature for pineapple growth is between 22-32°C. Leaf growth is best at 32°C and root growth at 29°C. Growth ceases below 20°C and above 36°C.
Rainfall
Pineapple requires a minimum annual rainfall of 76 cm, with optimal precipitation ranging from 100-150 cm [15]. However, excessive rainfall can be detrimental, as the crop is shallow-rooted and susceptible to waterlogging. Good drainage is essential, especially in areas with heavy rainfall or impervious subsoil.
Climate Requirements
Soil Type
Prefers well-drained, sandy loam soils with a pH range of 4.5 to 6.5. High organic matter content is beneficial.
Site Selection
Choose sites with good air drainage to reduce the risk of frost damage and waterlogged conditions.
Planting Systems
Flat Bed Planting
Suitable for areas without soil erosion issues. Ensures proper irrigation and drainage.
Raised Bed Planting
Used in low-lying lands for better drainage. Involves planting in lines on raised beds.
Furrow Planting
Appropriate for regions with moderate rainfall. Involves planting in double lines within furrows.
Trench Planting
Common in India, involves planting in trenches to provide good anchorage and prevent lodging.
Contour Planting
Used to prevent soil erosion on slopes. Involves planting along contour lines to catch runoff and serve as drainage channels
Planting Systems
Nutrient Removal
Pineapple plants remove significant amounts of soil nutrients, necessitating regular fertilization. For instance, 1 tonne of pineapple requires 1.8 kg of nitrogen, 0.5 kg of phosphorus, and 6.3 kg of potassium.
Fertilizer Application
Varies by region, with general recommendations available. For instance, Brazil recommends 120 kg N, 60 kg P2O5, and 120 kg K2O per hectare.
Organic Manure
Applied as basal dressing during field preparation. Nitrogen should be given in six split doses starting from the second month after planting. Potash is given in two splits.
Micronutrients
Zinc, manganese, iron, and boron are crucial. Deficiencies are corrected through foliar sprays
Weed Control and Mulching
Weed Control
Essential during early growth stages. Can be managed manually or using herbicides like diuron and bromacil. Organic mulching can also be effective in reducing weed growth.
Mulching Materials
Includes paddy straw, pineapple trash, paper, bagasse, sawdust, and polythene sheets. Commonly used in countries like Hawaii, Australia, and Taiwan. Mulching is less common in India due to high-density planting reducing weed growth
Earthing Up and Irrigation
Earthing Up
Involves pushing soil to the base of plants to increase anchorage and prevent lodging. Essential in regions with heavy rains or during fruit development periods.
Irrigation
Regular irrigation is necessary, especially during dry periods. Efficient drainage systems are equally important to prevent waterlogging.
Harvesting and Post-Harvest Management
Harvesting
Pineapples are harvested when fully ripe. The ripeness is indicated by a change in color and firmness of the fruit.
Post-Harvest Handling
Includes careful handling to prevent bruising, proper storage conditions, and efficient transportation to markets to maintain fruit quality.
Processing and Value-Addition
Pineapple is a versatile fruit with various processing possibilities. One of the most important products is canned pineapple slices, which are utilized as desserts or ingredients in other dishes. The canning process involves peeling, slicing, and heat treatment to ensure product stability and extend shelf life.
Another popular product is pineapple juice, which can be consumed fresh or used as a base for other beverages. Pineapple juice can be obtained by extracting the juice from the fruit or by reconstituting from concentrates.
Additionally, pineapple can be utilized in the production of jams, jellies, and other confectionery items, thanks to its unique flavor and aroma. These products have potential for both domestic and export markets, contributing to the valorization of the fruit.
Economic and Social Impact
Economic Importance
Pineapple is a significant commercial fruit crop in many tropical and subtropical countries. It contributes substantially to the agricultural economy through fresh fruit sales and processed products like canned pineapple and juice.
Social Impact
Pineapple farming provides employment opportunities in rural areas, supporting livelihoods and contributing to community development.
Pest and Disease Management
Common Pests
Includes mealybugs, scales, and mites. Regular monitoring and appropriate pesticide application are crucial.
Diseases
Pineapple is susceptible to diseases like heart rot, root rot, and fruit rot. Use of disease-free planting material and proper field sanitation are critical management practices.
